Social media operations can affect more than just beliefs. 8 Such findings are consistent with an earlier body of research on political advertising, which generally has “persuasive but short-lived influence on citizens.” 9 Some of the studied operations caused shifts in political beliefs and behavior, increased xenophobic or discriminatory sentiments, and increased skepticism and uncertainty around vaccines and medical information. 7 Short-Term Social Media OperationsĪnother set of studies examined the short-term effects of social media–based influence operations. 6 For example, mass media exposure to strong Nazi propaganda over many years was found to increase German soldiers’ risk-taking during World War II combat. In particular, several studies have shown that targeted information operations can lead to increased political violence in settings of conflict or civil unrest. Long-term mass media campaigns have also affected the behavior of those people exposed to them. 4 A separate study of Americans exposed to negative images of Ukraine by Russian media found this exposure decreased approval and perceptions of Ukraine by 10 percent. 3 For example, populations in Ukraine and Taiwan appeared more likely to vote for pro-Russian or China-endorsed candidates, respectively, after repeated exposure to foreign-supported television channels. Multiple studies showed that long-term influence operations using pre-internet media such as newspapers, radio, and television can be successful at causing voters to support a particular political party. Both types of exposure can measurably affect the beliefs or behavior of targeted populations. The strongest findings cluster in two areas: long-term exposure (lasting between four and thirty years) via traditional mass media, and short-term exposure (lasting days) via social media.

But we still lack answers to fundamental questions, like whether and how social media–based operations differ from traditional forms of influence. The literature demonstrates that certain kinds of influence operations can have measurable effects on people’s beliefs and behavior. The selected studies covered multiple forms of influence operations-mainly political disinformation, state propaganda, and health misinformation. 2 The review included only those studies that (1) examined a specific population targeted by an influence operation, (2) compared measurable outcomes (behaviors or beliefs) of people exposed versus those who were not, and (3) met minimum standards of statistical credibility. Thange examined eighty-two studies published between 19. To assess what is known about the effects of influence operations and identify remaining research gaps, the Partnership for Countering Influence Operations sponsored a systematic literature review by Princeton University’s Empirical Studies of Conflict Project. This makes it difficult for policymakers to prioritize influence threats, judge whether the problem is getting better or worse, and develop evidence-based solutions. Empirical research on how influence operations can affect people and societies-for example, by altering beliefs, changing voting behavior, or inspiring political violence-is limited and scattered. 1 Yet policymakers lack good information about the nature of the problem they seek to solve. Synthesized findings may be used by faculty to inform use of open pedagogy especially when considering issues with student confusion and changing power dynamics.Combating influence operations is a major priority of governments, tech platforms, and civil society organizations around the world. Generally, open pedagogy was defined in the context of open licensing affordances however, there were exceptions particularly when examining faculty experiences with open pedagogy. In this, the definitions of open pedagogy across empirical reports were examined. The purpose of this review was to systematically search and synthesize empirical findings on open pedagogy. However, definitions and instantiations of open pedagogy vary in the literature. There is a growing body of empirical research on open pedagogy. Open licensing used in open educational resources allows for teaching and learning practices that are not possible with traditional copyright.

Open pedagogy, open education, systematic review Abstract

Empirical findings